I. Introduction
PRC在1995年通过了致力于限制残疾婴儿出生的《母婴保健法》,该法支持系统的婚前检查措施以查明是否婚姻任何一方具有严重的遗传病或精神病症(serious hereditary & mental disorder),并防止有先天性疾病等的胎儿(Inferior births)的出生。那些不适合生产(deemed unsuitable for reproduction)的夫妻应当绝育(undergo sterilization),对已有的胎儿进行人工流产(abortion),尚未结婚的单身人士继续单身(remain celibate)。
本书讨论中国优生学的更广阔的历史,文化,社会和政治语境(broader historical, cultural, social and political context)。1995年的母婴保健法应被视为一种广泛的优生学运动(a much wider eugenic campaign),因为它向普通大众散播关于人类生育健康的医学知识,并向社会中的个人灌输对社会和国家的生育责任。在普及优生的政策措施中,国家广泛参与和监控婚姻和生育的各个过程,包括婚姻对象的选择,婚姻年龄的控制,怀孕时间的限制甚至是精子的质量,这些都被认为会对下一代健康成长至关重要的因素。国家对生育知识的传输并不是为了使个人拥有足够信息量以便做出更好的生育选择,而是向他们灌输关于性节制和对社会整体健康的生育责任等道德性的信息(not designed to enable informed individual choices in reproductive matters, but to instil a moral message of sexual restraint and reproductive duty in the name of collective health)。优生学实际上是从生命科学角度出发推行一种个人权益应该服从(subordinated)社会集体利益的观念。
如果认为PRC的优生学只是被少数医学专家掌控的边缘领域那就大错特错了。它实际上为人类在生产和社会改革提供了全局性的理据。许多在发达国家与优生学不太相关的重要问题,在中国,政府都通过政策的明确表述加以限制,这其中包括地方资源分配和家庭如何处理残疾人问题,生育前的胎儿检查技术的需求以求获得健康的新生儿等等,这些都使国家和社会的集体利益凌驾于个人权益之上,归纳来说是为了提高人口“素质/质量”。中国的优生学与20世纪六七十年代北欧福利国家的优胜政策相似,而与纳粹德国的不同。像北欧国家一样,在社会整体上为变得更为开放和富裕之前,并没有很多的声音挑战优生学的科学可靠性(Scientific credibility) 和政治暗示(political implications of eugenic practices)。
本书声称目前中国在生殖健康方面的进步受惠于两次世界大战中关于优生学理论的细致探讨。以下章节将显示,在民国时期优生学已经受到广泛讨论(Eugenic discourse),而民国时期实际上是关于种族卫生学(racial hygiene)观念在巨大的社会转型中渗透到各个领域,而优生学本身与种族,民族和性等观念都非常相关。它也是关于人类发展演化,退化,文明和现代化(Evolution, degeneration, civilization and modernity)等诸多讨论的一部分,受到学界,压力集团和政治机构和体制的支持。优生学本身能够给予社会恐惧和道德恐慌以科学权威等(Eugenics gave scientific authority to social fears and moral panics, lent respectability to racial prejudice and class bias, and legitimised sterilization acts and immigration laws)。
优生学对不同社会团体有不同的意义,it was appropriated and used in a variety of ways to accommodate radically divergent purposes and interests, being flexible enough to unite individuals or constituencies with contradictory agendas.优生学讨论当中有两个方向,a hard approach to heredity(遗传) based on genetics (英国和德国); a soft approach combining an emphasis on the environment with hereditarian explanations (民国中国,法国和巴西)。
与西方国家不同的是,中国的优生学界并不做很多研究和统计,而在其他国家,譬如在法国种族卫生学是政治团体的惯用词汇,许多知识分子也因为对现代性,民族主义和对政府社会改革的期待而关注优生学。而在民国中国,由于相对缺乏推广优生学的正式机制,官方和专业组织,它便更多的在教育系统中传输。它缺乏组织基础,而吸引来自各个领域的社会人士的关注,他们所关心的是如何建设一个更优生的国家。A shift away from prominent intellectuals to the more anonymous supporters of eugenics, a greater focus on the reception of eugenics at more popular levels of culture, and a more sustained analysis of traditional hereditarian attitudes,这些解释了为何民国时优生学的广泛传播(popularized)。
关于优生学历史的比较研究强调地方性因素如何动员和转化医学知识,而这些地方性是基于地方政治,经济,社会和文化等制度变量的基础上的表达(It highlights how common medical knoweldge is mobilized and transformed by the distinct local styles of expression dependent on the political, economic, social and cultural variables of particular institutions, social groups or countries)。本书致力于探讨地方性,尤其是传统观点如何影响优生学观念的产生,传播和接受。在清末中国,许多医学作品细致探讨了如何提高血统质量,而草率随意的人类再生产方式将会给下代人带来危险。These older medical ideas contributed to the shaping of eugenic discourse in the 20th century, recasting more traditional notions of reproductive health in the radically new language of science, eugenic discourse in 2oth century China was more of a cultural reconfiguration (重构) structured by older modes of representation than a radical rupture(断裂) with tradition. 在欧洲,传统的遗传论和性别假设(traditional hereditarian and gender assumptions)造就了优生学讨论,在中国父系文化(Patrilineal culture)使之兴盛。在父系文化中,家庭人口再生产对家庭未来延续是非常重要的,因而必须有良好的保证和规范(Safeguarded and regulated)。
再生产过程另一个优生学关注的点是先天缺陷(birth defects)。由于健康的下一代作为家庭延续而被重视,怪胎的出生被认同是极为不同寻常的事(extraordinary events)。文化历史学家强调关于事物的正常性和不正常性是如何被社会化的型构的(how boundaries of normality and abnormality are socially constructed),但关于disabled people的材料非常稀见。在父系家庭中健康的儿子是被重视的,而女性则已经开始在宗谱中被忽视,更何况那些怪胎。这些怪胎一般活不久[不仅由于本身健康原因,也有一些社会性的原因],即使他们能存活下来,他们在历史记录中也是失声的。
Fascination with the deviant, the horror(恐惧) of otherness, the desire to demarcate(区分) the normal form the abnormal are some important aspects in the cultural history of birth defects. 从畸形 (malformation)到mild defects,这些历史记录反映出关于人体的普遍认识。整体论(Holistic approach) 否认denies the existence of a disembodied and autonomous self,它认为个体是与环境紧密联系的,环境可以导致人体疾病。同时,causal power is attributed to pathogenic致病的 agents:包括古代的spirits和魔鬼,现代医学的病菌,微生物,毒素等等,在他们这些social environment 影响下,human body就可能得病了。但是畸形也不仅只是环境影响的结果,整体论认为与社会失调和报应有关(social disorder and biological retribution), which means the illness of offspring is often analogically related to the moral failure of the progenitors [An analogies constructed between morality and health, the fear of excess and the importance of self-control]. Holism 强调个人对a broader collectivity 的从属性,近代以来随着民族和国家危机的深入和现代化,political holism也出现了, which demands/portarys each person as an organic unit belonging to a larger collectivity. Frank suggested the emphasis on individual duties in the name of group rights is a thoroughly modern phenomenon which has little to do with traditional values. He proposes a politically conservative vision of the relationship between the state and the individual in the radically fashionable language of science. In other words, the identification of distinct approaches to and understandings of eugenics does not imply a recognition of their cultural relativity. Science is employed as legitimising force in the modernizing discourses. That a one-party state in which the possibilities for the expression of dissenting voices is limited not only enables but actively promotes a vision of eugenic control only highlights the necessity for scholarly engagement.
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