Ethnicity, education and empowerment

Chapter 5, Minority students and academic success—the structural perspective Pp 108-149

The major argument, growing out of the micro-interactionist perspective, is that those minority students who do well in school are those who manage to construct “achievement-oriented selves”. This construction process—which happens one-on-one between minority students and their relatives, neighbors and teachers as they advance toward university is discussed in the following chapter 6.

The process of identity construction occurs within a larger structural, or macro, context. Larger social entities like schools, villages and families—and the cultures, norms and values that grow out of them—have a profound effect on individual people’s lives. For minority students, the larger structural context at sometimes constrains and at other times enables them to construct “achievement-oriented selves”. At all times the structural context influences the ability of minority students to succeed in school and to qualify for university. In this chapter, the author discusses both constraints (factors like poverty and language) and supports (like special schools and financial aid) provided by the structural context in which ethnic students and their reference groups interact.

Structural constraints

Social class

西南少数民族很多分布在山区，many of Yunnan’s minority groups live in either mountainous or subtropical areas. Poor geographical conditions impede further economic development. Initial disadvantages compound themselves over time.很多又是贫困县。在初中里，大多数学生毕业之后是前往职业学校，为的是能够早赚钱养家。在教育水平，实际是影响社会分层的重要因素。

Family context

少数民族子女是否接受教育和受教育程度直接与家庭的经济状况有关。作者讨论了parents’ income, parents’ attitude to schooling, parents’ education, gender bias against educating girls, child labor for family financial support and so on.

Village context

Cultural deprivation文化剥夺, meaning limited contact by minority students with the dominant or Han culture. The dominant culture is the one that will be taught and upon which the students will be tested. The premise behind any given curriculum is that students have had certain mainstream cultural experiences upon which to draw before entering school. 而少数民族学生则未必有这样的cultural experiences了。

再者，ethnic minorities in China are regarded backward and underdeveloped compared to the Han majority. The role of the Han is to lead the way for the minorities as they progress toward socialist (Gladney, Dru C, 1994, Representing nationality in China: refiguring majority/minority identities, in the Journal of Asian studies 53: 92-123). 很多人认为这种落后有地域局限，比如很多少数民族居住在边境区，山区，很难与平原地区人交流。追根究底来说，是lack of transportation and communication facilities 的缘故。

Cultural barrier refers to the beliefs, values and norms that minority children bring with them into school and that differ significantly from those Han teachers. 包括语言，穿着，行为习惯，价值观。

School context

Facilities, teacher and language: 学校数量少，教育设施和教师数量poor。教学语言是汉语，而云南少数民族大多都是自己方言。初级中学有时使用双语教学，但会慢慢转用汉语。语言问题对少数民族学生而言是最大的问题。

Structural supports

The rationale behind the educational assistance is twofold—to better the quality of life for nationality people themselves and to ensure the political stability of China as a whole.

Support	Level	Why successful
Special schools & classes for ethnic students	1.Early childhood education 2.Primary schools 3.Full-accommodation schools 4.Half-accommodation schools 5.Vocational schools 6.Nationality sections 7.Preliminary classes	1. Instituted where none hand existed previously. 2. Dramatic increase in number built in areas with high minority populations. 3. Better study environment and living conditions for boarding students. 4. Provide free noon meal for students who live far from school. 5. Fast track to learning occupations, assuming jobs and earning money. 6. Special classes for minority students facing the most challenges, conducted in province’s finest non-minority schools. 7. Preparatory courses, offered by universities, that allow minority students to brush up on basic skills, the retake the college entrance exam.
Training teachers for nationality areas	1.Education of teachers at normal schools 2.Retention of teachers at primary & secondary schools 3.Directive to teachers at all schools	1. Minority students, who attend normal schools free, return to their villages to teach. 2. Increased salary and improved housing keep more qualified teachers at minority schools. 3. Make the education of minority students top priority.
Financial support for minority education	1.Central, provincial, prefectural and county governments 2.Primary, secondary and tertiary institutions 3.Schools at all levels	1. All contribute heavily. 2. Receive funds for building new schools, improving existing facilities, adding nationality classes and upgrading teacher quality. 3. Offer free tuition, room and board to most minority students.
Additional points on national examination	1.Minority students from most rural areas and most impoverished groups 2.For junior middle school, senior middle school and university	1. Benefit most. 2. Minority students are admitted with lower scores than Han students.